The Abraham Accords

The Agreements, August 2020 to January 2021

On 13 August 2020, the United States, Israel and the United Arab Emirates issued a joint statement. It announced that Israel and the UAE had agreed to full normalisation of relations. The statement said the two countries would sign agreements on investment, tourism, direct flights, security, telecommunications, energy, health care and the opening of embassies.[1]

On 15 September 2020, at the White House, Israel and the UAE signed a treaty of peace, diplomatic relations and full normalisation. Its first article establishes peace, diplomatic relations and full normalisation between the two states. Its third article commits them to exchange resident ambassadors as soon as practicable.[2] The treaty entered into force on 5 January 2021. Israel registered it with the United Nations Secretariat on 9 March 2021.[3]

Bahrain's agreement was concluded on 11 September 2020, in a telephone call between President Donald Trump, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. It was signed at the same White House ceremony four days later. Sudan declared its intention to normalise relations with Israel on 23 October 2020. Morocco and Israel signed their agreement on 22 December 2020.[4]

On 6 January 2021, in Khartoum, Sudan's justice minister, Nasredeen Abdulbari, signed the Abraham Accords declaration with US Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin. The ceremony was carried on Sudanese state television.[5]

The four agreements differ in legal depth. The UAE signed a treaty that is in force. Sudan never signed a bilateral agreement with Israel. The Sudanese government was overthrown in October 2021, and the country entered civil war in April 2023. After that, progress on relations with Israel stopped.[4] These were the first Arab states to normalise relations with Israel since Jordan in 1994.

What Each Party Received

Each Arab signatory received a separate benefit from the United States. The size and permanence of these benefits differed.

The United Arab Emirates.** On 10 November 2020, the State Department notified Congress of a proposed $23.37 billion sale to the UAE. The package covered up to 50 F-35 fighter aircraft, up to 18 MQ-9B armed drones, and air-to-air and air-to-ground munitions. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo linked the sale to the UAE's agreement with Israel.[6] The sale was never completed. The Biden administration put it on hold after taking office. On 14 December 2021, the UAE embassy in Washington said the UAE would suspend discussions. Emirati officials objected to US limits on how and where the aircraft could be used. The embassy said talks on the F-35 might reopen in the future.[7]

Morocco.** Proclamation 10126 is dated 4 December 2020 and was published in the Federal Register on 15 December 2020. It states that the United States recognises Moroccan sovereignty over the entire Western Sahara territory. It also commits the United States to open a consulate in Dakhla, in Western Sahara.[8] The consulate plan stalled under the Biden administration.[4]

Sudan.** The US Secretary of State rescinded Sudan's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism, effective 14 December 2020.[9] On 6 January 2021, Sudan's finance ministry and the US Treasury signed a memorandum of understanding on bridge financing to clear Sudan's arrears to the World Bank. Sudan's acting finance minister said this would give Sudan access to about $1 billion a year in World Bank financing, for the first time in nearly three decades.[5]

Bahrain.** Bahrain's main new security arrangement with the United States came three years later. On 13 September 2023, Secretary of State Antony Blinken and Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa signed the Comprehensive Security Integration and Prosperity Agreement (C-SIPA). It covers defence, security, science, technology and trade.[10] The White House described C-SIPA as a binding international agreement but not a treaty, so it did not need Senate approval. It gives Bahrain security assurances beyond those held by its neighbours, but weaker than a mutual defence pact.[11]

Israel.** Israel gained formal relations with states that had not recognised it, and an exchange of resident ambassadors under the UAE treaty.[2] Its main commitment was the suspension of West Bank annexation, described in the next section.

President Donald Trump, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Bahrain Dr. Abdullatif bin Rashid Al-Zayani, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the United Arab Emirates Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan walk to sign the Abraham Accords

The Annexation Suspension, 2020 to 2025

The joint statement of 13 August 2020 links normalisation to annexation in one sentence. It says that, as a result of the agreement and at President Trump's request, with UAE support, Israel will suspend declaring sovereignty over the areas outlined in the President's Vision for Peace.[1] The Vision for Peace was the Trump administration's January 2020 plan, which provided for Israeli sovereignty over parts of the West Bank. The statement uses the word "suspend" and gives no end date. The UAE treaty, signed a month later, reaffirms the joint statement in its preamble.[2]

The question returned in 2025. In early September 2025, Finance Minister Bezalel Smotrich proposed applying Israeli sovereignty to 82 % of the West Bank.[12] On 3 September 2025, Lana Nusseibeh, Assistant Minister for Political Affairs at the UAE foreign ministry, said that annexation "would constitute a red line for the UAE." She said it would undermine the Accords and end the pursuit of regional integration.[13]

On 22 October 2025, the Knesset voted 25 to 24 in a preliminary reading to advance a private member's bill applying Israeli sovereignty to the West Bank. Prime Minister Netanyahu and his Likud party opposed the vote. The preliminary reading was the first of four votes the bill needed to become law. The bill was sent to the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defence Committee.[14]

The 2020 text records a suspension by the Israeli government. It does not create a legal bar in Israeli law, and it does not say what would follow if Israel resumed annexation.

Trade and Defence Outcomes, 2021 to 2025

Trade.** A free trade agreement between Israel and the UAE entered into force on 1 April 2023. It was the first such agreement between Israel and an Arab state.[15] Published trade figures depend on what is counted. The Institute for National Security Studies (INSS), citing Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), reports that Israel-UAE trade grew from about $200 million in 2020 to over $3 billion in 2024. That figure includes diamonds.[15] The Times of Israel, also citing the CBS, reports Israel-UAE trade of about $3.2 billion in 2024. That figure excludes software and direct government-to-government deals.[16] Both are annual values in US dollars.

The Bahrain relationship was weaker in public. In November 2023, after the Gaza war began, Bahrain's parliament said the two countries' ambassadors had left and economic ties had been cut. Bahrain's parliament has no authority over foreign policy.[17]

Defence.** In November 2021, Israel and Morocco signed a military cooperation agreement, the first of its kind between Israel and an Arab state. INSS reports that Morocco's purchases of Israeli arms and military equipment since then total about $2 billion.[15]

Israel's Ministry of Defence publishes the share of its annual defence exports that goes to the Abraham Accords states. That share was 3 % in 2023.[15] It rose to 12 % in 2024, when total exports passed $14.7 billion.[18] In 2025, total exports reached about $19.2 billion. The ministry reported that Middle Eastern and North African states, including the UAE, Bahrain and Morocco, accounted for 15 %.[19] All figures are the value of signed export deals in US dollars.

Ministry officials also said that during the 2026 war with Iran, Israel sent an Iron Dome air defence system and personnel to the UAE. The system shot down Iranian missiles aimed at the UAE.[19]

The Saudi Question, 2023 to September 2026

Diplomats believed in 2023 that Saudi Arabia was close to normalising relations with Israel. The Hamas attack of 7 October 2023 and the Gaza war that followed changed that situation.[20]

On 18 September 2024, in his annual address to the Shura Council, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman said the kingdom would not establish diplomatic relations with Israel without an independent Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital.[21]

On 18 November 2025, the United States and Saudi Arabia signed a Strategic Defense Agreement at the White House. Washington approved the sale of F-35 aircraft and 300 Abrams tanks to the kingdom. In the Oval Office, the crown prince said Saudi Arabia wanted to join the Accords, but first wanted to "secure a clear path of two-state solution."[22] This wording asks for a path to a Palestinian state. The 2024 statement asked for the establishment of a state.

Twelve days earlier, on 6 November 2025, Kazakhstan said it would join the Accords. Kazakhstan has had diplomatic ties with Israel for decades, so the step created no new recognition of Israel.[23]

In 2026, the Saudi question was linked to nuclear cooperation. In July 2026, the United States and Saudi Arabia agreed a civil nuclear cooperation deal. On 23 July, President Trump said the deal would take effect only if Saudi Arabia joined the Abraham Accords. The kingdom has refused to join without a pathway to Palestinian statehood.[24] Trump also said the deal would permit no enrichment of nuclear material in Saudi Arabia.[25]

By 26 August 2026, the administration had sent the agreement to Congress. An administration official told the Times of Israel that approval depended on Saudi normalisation with Israel. Another official said the signed text contained no such requirement. The same report states that Saudi Arabia demands an irreversible path to a Palestinian state, and that the Netanyahu government has rejected one outright.[20] At the date of that report, Saudi Arabia had not joined the Accords.

In One Paragraph

The Abraham Accords are US-brokered agreements from August 2020 to January 2021. Under them, Israel formed relations with the UAE and Bahrain, both signed on 15 September 2020, and with Morocco on 22 December 2020. Sudan signed only the general declaration, on 6 January 2021, and never concluded an agreement with Israel. Israel agreed to suspend West Bank annexation, a commitment challenged by a Knesset preliminary vote in October 2025. The UAE was offered 50 F-35s but suspended talks in December 2021. Morocco received US recognition of its claim to Western Sahara. Sudan was removed from the US terrorism list and helped with World Bank arrears. Bahrain later signed a security agreement with the United States in 2023. Israel-UAE trade exceeded $3 billion in 2024. The Accords states took 15 % of Israeli defence exports in 2025. Saudi Arabia has not joined and still requires a path to a Palestinian state. In July 2026 the United States made a Saudi nuclear deal conditional on Saudi entry into the Accords.

Sources

1. United Arab Emirates Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel and the United Arab Emirates.” News release, August 13, 2020. **Relevant passage: “Israel will suspend declaring sovereignty.” **https://www.mofa.gov.ae/en/mediahub/news/2020/8/13/13-08-2020-uae-statement#:~:text=Israel%20will%20suspend%20declaring%20sovereignty
2. The White House. “Abraham Accords Peace Agreement: Treaty of Peace, Diplomatic Relations and Full Normalization between the United Arab Emirates and the State of Israel.” September 15, 2020. Trump White House Archives, National Archives. **Relevant passage: “exchange resident ambassadors.” **https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/abraham-accords-peace-agreement-treaty-of-peace-diplomatic-relations-and-full-normalization-between-the-united-arab-emirates-and-the-state-of-israel#:~:text=exchange%20resident%20ambassadors
3. United Nations Treaty Series. “No. 56565. Israel and United Arab Emirates: Abraham Accords Peace Agreement: Treaty of Peace, Diplomatic Relations and Full Normalization (with Annex). Washington, 15 September 2020.” Registration record, March 9, 2021. **p. 1. **https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/No%20Volume/56565/Part/I-56565-08000002805a7d1f.pdf#page=1
4. Marx, Hannah, Eryn Gold, and Hamad Alshamlan. “The Abraham Accords.” Backgrounder. Middle East Institute. Updated April 20, 2026. **Relevant passage: “bilateral agreement with Israel was never signed.” **https://mei.edu/backgrounder/abraham-accords/#:~:text=bilateral%20agreement%20with%20Israel%20was%20never%20signed
5. Kelemen, Michele. “U.S. Treasury Secretary Signs Massive Loan Deal with Sudan.” NPR, January 6, 2021. **Relevant passage: “billion dollars a year.” **https://www.npr.org/2021/01/06/954186825/u-s-treasury-secretary-signs-massive-loan-deal-with-sudan#:~:text=billion%20dollars%20a%20year
6. Al Jazeera. “US Approves $23bn Advanced Arms Sale to UAE: Pompeo.” November 10, 2020. **Relevant passage: “up to 50 F-35.” **https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/10/us-approves-23-bn-advanced-arms-sale-to-uae-pompeo#:~:text=up%20to%2050%20F%2D35
7. Merchant, Nomaan. “U.A.E. Will ‘Suspend Discussions’ on $23 Billion Weapons Deal with U.S.” Associated Press, via PBS NewsHour, December 14, 2021. **Relevant passage: “may be re-opened.” **https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/u-a-e-will-suspend-discussions-on-23b-weapons-deal-with-u-s#:~:text=may%20be%20re%2Dopened
8. Trump, Donald J. “Proclamation 10126—Recognizing the Sovereignty of the Kingdom of Morocco over the Western Sahara.” December 4, 2020. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-10126-recognizing-the-sovereignty-the-kingdom-morocco-over-the-western-sahara
9. US Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control. “Terrorism List Governments Sanctions Regulations.” Final rule, 31 C.F.R. pt. 596, implementing rescission at 85 Fed. Reg. 82565 (December 18, 2020). **pp. 1–2. **https://ofac.treasury.gov/media/98141/download
10. The White House. “Fact Sheet: Biden-Harris Administration Strengthens Partnership with Kingdom of Bahrain and Launches ‘Comprehensive Security Integration and Prosperity Agreement.’” September 13, 2023. Biden White House Archives. **Relevant passage: “signed C-SIPA.” **https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/09/13/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-strengthens-partnership-with-kingdom-of-bahrain-and-launches-comprehensive-security-integration-and-prosperity-agreement/#:~:text=signed%20C%2DSIPA
11. “United States and Bahrain Sign Comprehensive Security Integration and Prosperity Agreement.” American Journal of International Law, Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law. Cambridge University Press. **Relevant passage: “binding international agreement.” **https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/united-states-and-bahrain-sign-comprehensive-security-integration-and-prosperity-agreement/8365C8A6AED8FEE77CE6F6F2F21FC723#:~:text=binding%20international%20agreement
12. Times of Israel. “Smotrich Proposes Annexing 82% of West Bank in Bid to Prevent Palestinian State.” September 3, 2025. **Relevant passage: “red line.” **https://www.timesofisrael.com/smotrich-proposes-annexing-82-of-west-bank-in-bid-to-prevent-palestinian-state/#:~:text=red%20line
13. CNN. “UAE Warns Israel’s West Bank Annexation Would Cross ‘Red Line’ and End Regional Integration Efforts.” September 3, 2025. **Relevant passage: “would constitute a red line.” **https://www.cnn.com/2025/09/03/middleeast/uae-israel-abraham-accords-trump-netanyahu-intl#:~:text=would%20constitute%20a%20red%20line
14. Al Jazeera. “Israel’s Parliament Advances Bill to Annex Occupied West Bank.” October 22, 2025. **Relevant passage: “first of four votes.” **https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/10/22/israels-parliament-advances-bill-to-annex-occupied-west-bank#:~:text=first%20of%20four%20votes
15. Institute for National Security Studies. “Five Years On: Are the Abraham Accords Here to Stay?” September 16, 2025. **Relevant passage: “up from just 3%.” **https://www.inss.org.il/publication/abraham-accords-5-years/#:~:text=up%20from%20just%203%25
16. Times of Israel. “Money Talks: Trade Keeps Israel-UAE Relations Afloat Despite Oct. 7 and Gaza War.” February 21, 2025. **Relevant passage: “excluding software.” **https://www.timesofisrael.com/money-talks-trade-keeps-israel-uae-relations-afloat-despite-oct-7-and-gaza-war/#:~:text=excluding%20software
17. AGBI. “Trade Flourishes between Israel and Arab States.” July 2, 2024. **Relevant passage: “no authority over foreign policy.” **https://www.agbi.com/trade/2024/07/trade-israel-arab-states/#:~:text=no%20authority%20over%20foreign%20policy
18. Israel Ministry of Defense Spokesperson. “Israel Sets New Record in Defense Exports: Over $14.7 Billion in 2024.” Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, June 2025. **Relevant passage: “Abraham Accords countries.” **https://embassies.gov.il/nepal/en/news/israel-ministry-defense-spokesperson-israel-sets-new-record-defense-exports-over-147-billion#:~:text=Abraham%20Accords%20countries
19. Times of Israel. “Israeli Arms Sales Break Record for 5th Year in Row, Reaching $19.2 Billion in 2025.” June 2, 2026. **Relevant passage: “Iron Dome.” **https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-arms-sales-break-record-for-5th-year-in-row-reaching-19-2-billion-in-2025/#:~:text=Iron%20Dome
20. Times of Israel. “White House Presents Saudi Nuke Deal to Congress, but Insists Riyadh Recognize Israel.” August 26, 2026. **Relevant passage: “did not mention a requirement.” **https://www.timesofisrael.com/white-house-presents-saudi-nuke-deal-to-congress-but-insists-riyadh-recognize-israel/#:~:text=did%20not%20mention%20a%20requirement
21. Arab News. “Saudi Arabia Will Not Recognize Israel Without Palestinian State, Crown Prince Tells Shoura Council.” September 18, 2024. **Relevant passage: “will not establish diplomatic relations.” **https://www.arabnews.com/node/2571912/saudi-arabia#:~:text=will%20not%20establish%20diplomatic%20relations
22. Breaking Defense. “F-35, Tank Sales Part of New US-Saudi Strategic Defense Agreement.” November 18, 2025. **Relevant passage: “clear path of two-state.” **https://breakingdefense.com/2025/11/f-35-tank-sales-part-of-new-us-saudi-strategic-defense-agreement/#:~:text=clear%20path%20of%20two%2Dstate
23. Kemp, Danny. “Kazakhstan to Join Abraham Accords as Trump Pushes Mideast Peace.” Agence France-Presse, via Al-Monitor, November 6, 2025. **Relevant passage: “diplomatic ties with Israel for decades.” **https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2025/11/kazakhstan-join-abraham-accords-trump-pushes-mideast-peace#:~:text=diplomatic%20ties%20with%20Israel%20for%20decades
24. Gardner, Timothy, Bhargav Acharya, and Jacob Bogage. “US Says Saudi Nuclear Deal off Without Israel Recognition.” Reuters, via U.S. News & World Report, July 23, 2026. **Relevant passage: “take effect only if.” **https://www.usnews.com/news/top-news/articles/2026-07-23/trump-says-us-saudi-nuclear-deal-conditional-on-country-joining-abraham-accords#:~:text=take%20effect%20only%20if
25. NPR. “Trump Says Saudi Arabia’s Nuclear Deal Hinges on the Kingdom Normalizing Israel Ties.” July 23, 2026. **Relevant passage: “no enrichment.” **https://www.npr.org/2026/07/23/nx-s1-5904327/us-saudi-arabia-iran#:~:text=no%20enrichment