Israel's International Relations

What holds the United States and Israel together?

The United States is Israel's most important foreign partner, and military aid is at the centre of the relationship. Aid is set out in ten-year memorandums of understanding, known as MOUs. These are political commitments, not treaties, and the money for each year still depends on Congress. In 2016, the two governments signed their third MOU, covering fiscal years 2019 to 2028. The United States pledged 38 billion dollars, subject to appropriation by Congress: 33 billion in Foreign Military Financing grants and 5 billion for missile defence [1]. The previous agreement, which ran through fiscal year 2018, was worth 30 billion dollars. From 1971 to 2007, Israel also received large amounts of economic aid, but almost all United States aid is now military [2]. The 2016 MOU changed older rules. Israel had been allowed to convert 26.3 % of its yearly Foreign Military Financing from dollars into shekels and spend it inside Israel. Under the new MOU, this permission stays until fiscal year 2024, is then reduced step by step, and ends in fiscal year 2028. Israel may also no longer use this aid to buy fuel [3]. As a result, a larger share of the aid must be spent in the United States. After the Hamas-led attack of 7 October 2023, Congress gave money beyond the MOU. In April 2024, Public Law 118-50 provided 3.5 billion dollars in extra Foreign Military Financing for Israel. It also provided 5.2 billion dollars in defence funds: 4 billion for missile defence and 1.2 billion for the Iron Beam laser defence system. The Congressional Research Service reported that talks on the next MOU had not yet started [1]. Support for this aid in American politics has come partly from two groups: American Jews and white evangelical Protestants. Evangelical support has a religious basis. In a 2003 Pew survey, 72 % of white evangelicals said God gave the land of Israel to the Jewish people, compared with 44 % of all Americans. Also, 63 % of white evangelicals said Israel fulfils biblical prophecy about the second coming of Jesus, compared with 36 % of all Americans [4]. Wider American opinion has moved away from Israel. The Pew Research Center surveyed 3,507 adults in the United States from 23 to 29 March 2026. It found that 60 % had a very or somewhat unfavourable view of Israel. This figure was 7 points higher than in 2025 and nearly 20 points higher than in 2022. The survey was taken about a month into the war in Iran led by the United States and Israel. In both major parties, most adults under 50 viewed Israel and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu negatively [5]. Jewish Americans, at 64 %, and white evangelical Protestants, at 65 %, remained mostly favourable [5]. The aid system is therefore still in place in law, while the public support behind it has become narrower.

How have Europe, Russia and China dealt with Israel?

West Germany's relationship with Israel began with a reparations agreement. On 10 September 1952, the two states signed an agreement in Luxembourg. West Germany agreed to pay Israel 3 billion Deutsche Mark. It also agreed to pay, through Israel, 450 million Deutsche Mark for the Conference on Jewish Material Claims against Germany. The agreement came into force on 27 March 1953 [6]. The official German announcement said the payments to Israel repaid the cost of settling Jewish refugees from Germany and from lands once under German rule. The agreement was signed despite strong opposition in the West German cabinet, in the governing coalition and among the public [7]. Britain and France had different starting points. Britain issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917 and governed Palestine under a League of Nations mandate until 1948. France was Israel's main arms supplier in the 1950s and until 1967. In September 2025, both changed long-standing policy. On 21 September 2025, Prime Minister Keir Starmer wrote to Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas that the United Kingdom formally recognised the State of Palestine as a sovereign and independent state. The letter recalled that in 1917 Britain had supported a national home for the Jewish people, with the condition that the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities be protected [8]. The next day, at a UN conference co-chaired by France and Saudi Arabia, President Emmanuel Macron announced that France recognised the State of Palestine. He said that recognising Palestinian rights took nothing away from the rights of Israelis. Andorra, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Portugal, San Marino and the United Kingdom were named among the states recognising Palestine at that time [9]. The Soviet Union first helped Israel and later opposed it. On 14 May 1947, Soviet delegate Andrei Gromyko told the UN General Assembly that his government preferred a single state with equal rights for Jews and Arabs. He added that partition should be considered if such a state proved impossible [10]. The Soviet Union voted for partition in November 1947. It cut relations with Israel in June 1967 after the Six-Day War, and relations were restored in October 1991 [11]. In September 2015, Netanyahu and President Vladimir Putin agreed on a mechanism to coordinate military action in Syria and prevent clashes between their forces [12]. On 26 October 2023, Russia hosted a Hamas delegation in Moscow for talks on hostages and on evacuating foreigners, including Russian citizens. Israel condemned the visit [13]. China and Israel took four decades to establish full ties. Israel recognised the People's Republic of China in January 1950, the first state in the Middle East to do so. Full diplomatic relations began only on 24 January 1992 [14]. In the joint communiqué establishing relations, Israel recognised the People's Republic as the sole legal government of China and accepted that Taiwan is part of Chinese territory [15]. According to the Chinese Foreign Ministry, the two states announced an "innovative comprehensive partnership" in March 2017. The ministry reports that trade between them reached 22.7 billion US dollars in 2024. Of this, Chinese exports were 14.3 billion and imports from Israel were 8.4 billion [16].

What did the peace treaties and normalisation agreements change?

Egypt was the first Arab state to make peace with Israel. The treaty was signed in Washington on 26 March 1979. It ended the state of war and required Israel to withdraw its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula behind the international boundary. Under Article III, the two states agreed to full recognition and to normal diplomatic, economic and cultural relations. An annex limited the forces each side could keep in set zones and placed international forces and observers in Sinai [17]. The Arab League suspended Egypt's membership from 1979 to 1989. The treaty has lasted through later wars in Lebanon and Gaza. Trade, tourism and public contact between the two peoples have remained limited, and the relationship is often called a "cold peace." Egypt has regularly acted as a mediator between Israel and Hamas. Jordan signed its treaty with Israel on 26 October 1994 at the Arava/Araba border crossing. The United States and Russia signed as witnesses [18]. Article 9 states that Israel respects Jordan's present special role in the Muslim holy shrines in Jerusalem. It also says Israel will give this role high priority in final-status negotiations. The treaty's annexes created special arrangements for two border areas, Naharayim/Baqura and Zofar/Ghumar, for an initial period of 25 years. They also set rules for sharing water from the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers [18]. Jordan has a large population of Palestinian origin, so events in the West Bank and Jerusalem directly affect the treaty relationship. In 2002, the Arab states offered a collective deal. On 28 March 2002, the Arab League summit in Beirut adopted the Arab Peace Initiative as resolution 14/221. It called on Israel to withdraw fully to the lines of 4 June 1967, including from the Golan Heights. It called for a just solution to the Palestinian refugee problem, "to be agreed upon" in line with UN General Assembly Resolution 194. It also called for a sovereign Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital. In return, the Arab states would consider the conflict ended, sign a peace agreement with Israel and establish normal relations [19]. Israel never accepted the initiative as a basis for negotiations. The Abraham Accords reversed the order of the 2002 offer. Arab states normalised relations with Israel before a Palestinian state existed. The United Arab Emirates and Bahrain signed on 15 September 2020, Morocco on 22 December 2020 and Sudan on 6 January 2021. This brought the number of Arab states with formal ties to Israel to six [20]. The foreign ministers of Israel, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco and the United States later met at Sde Boker in Israel and set up the Negev Forum. The United Arab Emirates said its trade with Israel had passed 2.5 billion dollars since the Accords [20]. Saudi Arabia is the largest remaining prize for normalisation. In 2023, it was in talks backed by the United States that also involved a possible defence agreement between Saudi Arabia and the United States. After the October 2023 war began, these talks were paused. On 18 September 2024, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman told the Shura Council that the kingdom would not establish diplomatic relations with Israel without an independent Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital [21]. In September 2025, Saudi Arabia co-chaired the UN conference at which France and other states recognised Palestine [9].

Where have Turkey, Africa and Latin America stood?

Turkey was the first Muslim-majority state to recognise Israel, in 1949. The two states had close military ties in the 1990s. Relations broke down after Israeli forces raided a Turkish-led flotilla to Gaza in 2010, and they have partly recovered several times since. The war that began in October 2023 caused the deepest break. In April 2024, Turkey restricted some exports to Israel. On 2 May 2024, its trade ministry stopped all exports and imports with Israel until Israel allowed an uninterrupted and sufficient flow of aid into Gaza. Trade between the two countries had been worth 6.8 billion dollars in 2023. Israel's foreign minister, Israel Katz, called President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's decision the behaviour of a dictator [22]. After the government of Bashar al-Assad fell in Syria, Turkey expanded its role there. In 2026, Israeli reporting compared the possible need for a military coordination mechanism with Turkey in Syria to the one Israel set up with Russia in 2015 [23]. In Africa, Israel ran large aid and training programmes in the 1960s. After the October 1973 war, most sub-Saharan African states cut relations with Israel. Many restored them in the 1980s and 1990s. Israel's status at the African Union shows how divided the continent remains. In July 2021, the chair of the African Union Commission, Moussa Faki Mahamat, accepted Israel as an observer. He did so on his own authority. South Africa and Algeria led protests against the decision. In February 2023, guards removed an Israeli diplomat, Sharon Bar-li, from the African Union summit. The Union then said Israel's observer status was suspended while a committee of heads of state considered the matter [24]. In North Africa, Morocco and Sudan joined the Abraham Accords [20]. South Africa brought a genocide case against Israel at the International Court of Justice. Latin American states cast important votes for partition in 1947. In recent years, some have moved against Israel. On 31 October 2023, Bolivia cut diplomatic relations with Israel over its military campaign in Gaza. Chile and Colombia recalled their ambassadors on the same day [25]. On 1 May 2024, Colombian President Gustavo Petro announced that Colombia would break relations with Israel. Colombia had already asked to join South Africa's case at the International Court of Justice. Foreign Minister Katz called Petro "antisemitic and full of hate" [26]. The region remains divided, and several other Latin American governments remain close to Israel.

How has Israel fared at the United Nations and in international courts?

The UN General Assembly has often been hostile ground for Israel. On 10 November 1975, it adopted Resolution 3379, which determined that "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination" [27]. The resolution passed with 72 votes in favour, 35 against and 32 abstentions. After the Cold War ended, the Assembly adopted Resolution 46/86 on 16 December 1991 by 111 votes in favour, 25 against and 13 abstentions. This resolution revoked the 1975 determination [28]. The UN Human Rights Council gives Israel a unique place on its agenda. Council Resolution 5/1 of 18 June 2007 set the Council's permanent agenda. Item 7 covers the "Human rights situation in Palestine and other occupied Arab territories." Every other country situation falls under a general item for situations that require the Council's attention [29]. The United States withdrew from the Council in 2018. It withdrew again under Executive Order 14199, signed on 4 February 2025, which said some UN bodies were "attacking our allies and propagating anti-Semitism" [30]. Since 2024, international courts have played a larger role. On 29 December 2023, South Africa brought a case against Israel under the Genocide Convention. On 26 January 2024, the International Court of Justice found that at least some of the rights South Africa claimed were plausible. These included the right of Palestinians in Gaza to be protected from acts of genocide. The Court ordered Israel to take all measures in its power to prevent acts covered by the Convention, to prevent and punish direct and public incitement to genocide, and to enable basic services and humanitarian aid. It also called for the immediate and unconditional release of the hostages held in Gaza. This order did not decide whether genocide had taken place, and the main case continues [31]. On 19 July 2024, in a separate advisory opinion requested by the General Assembly, the Court found by 11 votes to 4 that Israel's continued presence in the Occupied Palestinian Territory is unlawful. It said Israel must end that presence as rapidly as possible, stop all new settlement activity and evacuate all settlers [32]. The International Criminal Court acted against individuals on both sides. On 21 November 2024, Pre-Trial Chamber I rejected Israel's challenges to the Court's jurisdiction. It found that Israel's acceptance was not required because the Court could act on the basis of Palestine's territory. It issued arrest warrants for Netanyahu and former Defence Minister Yoav Gallant, based on applications the Prosecutor had filed on 20 May 2024 [33]. On the same day, the Chamber issued a warrant for Mohammed Deif, a commander of Hamas's armed wing, for crimes against humanity and war crimes from at least 7 October 2023. Applications for two other Hamas leaders, Ismail Haniyeh and Yahya Sinwar, were withdrawn after their deaths were confirmed [34]. Israel is not a party to the Rome Statute, which created the Court.

What are the two-state framework and BDS, and where do they stand?

The idea of two states goes back to the UN partition plan. Resolution 181 of 29 November 1947 recommended an Arab state and a Jewish state in Palestine, with Jerusalem under a special international regime [35]. Security Council Resolution 242 of 1967 added the formula of land in exchange for peace. The Oslo Accords of 1993 and 1995 created the Palestinian Authority, but they left borders, Jerusalem, refugees and settlements for later talks that never ended in agreement. The Arab Peace Initiative offered normal relations in return for a Palestinian state on the 1967 lines [19]. In its 2024 advisory opinion, the International Court of Justice described Israel's continued presence in the occupied territory as unlawful [32]. When the United Kingdom recognised Palestine, Starmer called a two-state solution "the only pathway to a just and lasting peace" [8]. At the September 2025 conference, the Saudi foreign minister said two states were the only way to reach a just and permanent peace [9]. Israel's government opposes a Palestinian state under present conditions. As a result, most states say they support the two-state framework, while the party that controls the territory rejects it. The Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement, known as BDS, was launched in 2005 by Palestinian civil society groups. It calls for economic and cultural pressure on Israel. BDS is a campaign by private groups and individuals. It is separate from the measures taken by governments, such as Turkey's trade halt or Colombia's break in relations. Israel has passed laws against boycott calls. The Law for Prevention of Damage to the State of Israel through Boycott, passed in 2011, makes it a civil wrong to knowingly publish a public call for a boycott of Israel as the law defines it, including boycotts of areas under Israeli control. It also allows the government to deny state benefits to people who make such calls. On 15 April 2015, a panel of nine justices of Israel's Supreme Court unanimously struck down section 2(c). That section had allowed courts to award damages without proof of harm. A majority upheld the rest of the law. The majority included the application of the law to calls to boycott settlements in the West Bank, which it upheld by a vote of 5 to 4 [36]. Many US states have also passed laws limiting state contracts with companies that boycott Israel.

In One Paragraph

Israel's foreign relations rest on its alliance with the United States, a small group of Arab peace and normalisation agreements, and a long contest at the United Nations. The United States pledged 38 billion dollars in military aid for 2019 to 2028 under a 2016 agreement and added more after October 2023, while American public opinion turned against Israel, reaching 60 % unfavourable in March 2026. West Germany began its relationship through the 1952 Luxembourg reparations agreement. The Soviet Union backed Israel's creation, cut ties from 1967 to 1991, and Russia later coordinated with Israel in Syria. China established relations in 1992. Egypt in 1979, Jordan in 1994, and the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco and Sudan in 2020 and 2021 made peace or normalised relations. Saudi Arabia holds to the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative's demand for a Palestinian state first. Since 2023, Turkey halted trade, Bolivia and Colombia cut ties, the African Union suspended Israel's observer status, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court acted, and the United Kingdom, France and others recognised Palestine in September 2025. The UN revoked its 1975 resolution calling Zionism racism in 1991, and the Human Rights Council keeps a permanent agenda item on Israel.

Sources

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2. Sharp, Jeremy M. U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel. CRS Report RL33222, version 39. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2020. Summary, page 1.https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/RL/PDF/RL33222/RL33222.39.pdf.
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25. Reuters. "Bolivia Severs Ties with Israel, Others Recall Envoys over Gaza." October 31, 2023. Investing.com.https://www.investing.com/news/world-news/bolivia-severs-diplomatic-ties-with-israel-citing-crimes-against-humanity-3216058.
26. Reuters. "Colombia to Break Diplomatic Relations with Israel, President Petro Says." May 1, 2024.https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/colombia-president-petro-says-will-break-diplomatic-relations-with-israel-2024-05-01/.
27. United Nations General Assembly. "Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination." A/RES/3379 (XXX), adopted at the 2400th plenary meeting, November 10, 1975. United Nations Digital Library.https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/189598.
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29. United Nations Human Rights Council. "Institution-Building of the United Nations Human Rights Council." Resolution 5/1, June 18, 2007. Annex, section V.B, "Agenda." UNISPAL.https://www.un.org/unispal/document/auto-insert-181346/.
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31. International Court of Justice. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel). Order on the Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, January 26, 2024. Paragraphs 54 and 86.https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/192/192-20240126-ord-01-00-en.pdf.
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33. International Criminal Court. "Situation in the State of Palestine: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I Rejects the State of Israel's Challenges to Jurisdiction and Issues Warrants of Arrest for Benjamin Netanyahu and Yoav Gallant." Press release, November 21, 2024.https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-state-palestine-icc-pre-trial-chamber-i-rejects-state-israels-challenges.
34. International Criminal Court. "Situation in the State of Palestine: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I Issues Warrant of Arrest for Mohammed Diab Ibrahim Al-Masri (Deif)." Press release, November 21, 2024.https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-state-palestine-icc-pre-trial-chamber-i-issues-warrant-arrest-mohammed-diab-ibrahim.
35. United Nations General Assembly. "Future Government of Palestine." A/RES/181(II), November 29, 1947. United Nations Digital Library.https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/667160.
36. Supreme Court of Israel, sitting as the High Court of Justice. Avneri v. The Knesset. HCJ 5239/11, decided April 15, 2015. English translation, holding. Versa: Opinions of the Supreme Court of Israel, Cardozo School of Law.https://versa.cardozo.yu.edu/opinions/avneri-v-knesset.